ABSTRACT Introduction: The impact of inappropriate prescription of medication in the elderly has led to the development of methods for its reduction in several parts of the world. Objective: To design and validate the medication approaches potentially inappropriate in the elderly, adapted to the socio-sanitary environment of Cuba. Methods: A qualitative investigation was carried out, in which the approaches were validated by means of the Delphi methodology, by an experts committee (specialists in geriatrics medicine and clinic from different geographical areas of the country), and the internal consistency was calculated by means of the alpha coefficient of Cronbach. Results: The approaches were structured in three lists: 1) potentially inappropriate medication, advised medication non prescribed, when contraindication doesn't exist for its use; 2) medication potentially inappropriate, independent from the diagnosis or clinical condition; 3) potentially inappropriate medication, depending on the diagnosis or clinical condition. Conclusions: The validity of the content and the appropriate internal consistency of the designed approaches for the medication identification potentially inappropriate in the elderly were demonstrated.

RESUMEN Introducción: El impacto de la prescripción inapropiada de fármacos en el anciano ha llevado al desarrollo de métodos para su reducción en varias partes del mundo. Objetivo: Diseñar y validar los criterios de medicación potencialmente inapropiada en el anciano, adaptados al entorno sociosanitario de Cuba. Métodos: Se realizó una investigación cualitativa, en la cual los criterios fueron validados por medio de la metodología Delphi, por un comité de expertos (especialistas en medicina geriátrica y clínica de diferentes zonas geográficas del país), y se les calculó la consistencia interna mediante el coeficiente alfa de Cronbach. Resultados: Los criterios quedaron estructurados en tres listas: 1) medicación potencialmente inapropiada, medicamento indicado no prescripto, cuando no existe contraindicación para su uso; 2) medicación potencialmente inapropiada independiente del diagnóstico o la condición clínica; 3) medicación potencialmente inapropiada dependiente del diagnóstico o la condición clínica. Conclusiones: Se demostró la validez del contenido y la adecuada consistencia interna de los criterios diseñados para la identificación de medicación potencialmente inapropiada en el anciano.

ABSTRACT Incorporating methodological tools that allow uniform and standardized development from the clinical pharmacy services to the Pharmaceutical Care practice, is nowadays a necessity. Considering the importance of pharmaceutical care provision to elderly patients, this manuscript introduces the design and content validation of a standard operating procedure to provide pharmacotherapy follow-up to the elderly in nursing homes in Cuba. The procedure was designed based on a deep analysis of documents relative to experiences focused on holistic care to elderly patients, criteria for the identification and assessment of potentially inappropriate prescriptions and the relationship between functional geriatric evaluation and the use of drugs. The content validation was conducted by a panel of experts, using the Delphi methodology, through two working sessions. In addition, we used Likert-type scale to evaluate the procedure by experts, in line with the indicators described. In general, the criteria issued by the experts were very appropriate and allowed us to modify, add or keep several elements of the instrument for the final version. The findings demonstrated that the instrument can be used at any level of health care.

Introduction: starting from 1990, several pharmaceutical care programs have been developed at the hospital setting, focused on the pharmacotherapeutic follow-up of the patient. However, the international scientific community of pharmacists has envisaged some problems such as the lack of systematic, continuous and permanent implementation. Objective: to design an organizational system to support the pharmaceutical care as a professional practice at the Cuban hospital settings, particularly in Santiago de Cuba province. Methods: the systemic method tools were used for the system design and the components, the principles, the structure and the graphic presentation as well as the characteristics and the approach were all defined. Results: acomplex, dynamic, probabilistic, adaptive and unstable system was put forward, which will depend on the integration of interacting factors as the following: System of essential relationships, Structure, Process and Result will be applicable to any clinic-oriented pharmaceutical activity at hospital under the concepts of the Pharmaceutical Care. Conclusions: the implementation of the suggested system could represent a significant contribution to the pharmaceutical care at hospital in Cuba as long as the Cuban health authorities adopt the recommendations made in this respect.

Introducción: a partir de 1990 se han desarrollado programas de Atención Farmacéutica en ambiente hospitalario, centrando su atención en el Seguimiento farmacoterapéutico, sin embargo, la comunidad científica internacional farmacéutica visualiza problemáticas como la ausencia de un ejercicio sistematizado, continuo y permanente. Objetivo: diseñar un sistema organizativo para implementar el ejercicio de la atención farmacéutica como práctica profesional, en el ámbito hospitalario cubano, específicamente en la provincia Santiago de Cuba. Métodos: para el diseño del sistema se aplicaron herramientas del método sistémico; se definieron: partes componentes, principios, estructura y representación gráfica, así como, características y enfoque. Resultados: se propuso un sistema organizativo complejo, dinámico, probabilístico, adaptable e inestable, dependiente de la integración de factores interactuantes que son: sistema de relaciones esenciales, estructura, proceso y resultado; aplicable a cualquier actividad farmacéutica hospitalaria orientada a la clínica, bajo los conceptos de la atención farmacéutica. Conclusiones: la implementación del sistema propuesto se podrá constituir en elevada contribución para la atención farmacéutica hospitalaria en Cuba, en la medida en que las recomendaciones puedan ser adoptadas por las autoridades sanitarias cubanas.

The aim of this study was to develop a patient-centered quality management system model to be used at hospitals to improve their pharmacovigilance practices. We demonstrated applicability and feasibility of 66 quality indicators by using the Delphi method, in 2 rounds, by a panel of 14 experts. Using the final set of indicators, diagnostic evaluation of the pharmacovigilance unit was performed at 8 Mexican hospitals ('ASEGUREMHOS' hospital network) in order to validate the quality assessment items. Here we present the first model to manage and measure quality of hospital-based pharmacovigilance systems in Mexico and Latin America. Our work encourages the use of good pharmacovigilance practices to improve patient safety at hospitals.

En este trabajo se demostró la pertinencia y validez de 66 indicadores diseñados para la evaluación y seguimiento de las unidades de farmacovigilancia hospitalaria y seleccionados bajo el marco de un sistema de gestión integral de la calidad centrado en el paciente. Para seleccionar los indicadores con mayor relevancia y viabilidad se empleó el método Delphi en dos rondas de consulta a 14 expertos. Posteriormente se validaron a través de la aplicación del instrumento de indicadores a las unidades de farmacovigilancia hospitalaria de los ocho hospitales que conforman la red ASEGUREMHOS. El modelo de gestión desarrollado pretende contribuir al fortalecimiento de las unidades de farmacovigilancia hospitalaria en México y Latinoamérica a través del cumplimiento de estándares que garantizan las buenas prácticas de farmacovigilancia específicamente en el ámbito hospitalario.

Introduction: the panorama of the Latin American countries at present shows that at hospital setting, the concept of pharmaceutical care is adopted, but the practice proves that it continues being focused in drugs and dispensation. The use of easy-to-measure indications to find out the characteristics of the functions related to this exercise may represent the confirmation these realities. Objective: to characterize the practice of pharmaceutical care in hospital institutions. Methods: a retrospective research study was carried out and covered years 2005 through 2007 in hospital institutions of Santiago de Cuba. Some indicators were set on the basis of the criteria for the pharmaceutical care activity included in the Manual de normas y procedimientos de farmacias hospitalarias" and of the criteria found in the international literature. The reported registers of pharmaceutical care sent to the provincial health division were also taken into consideration. Results: the indicators revealed that the pharmacotherapeutic follow-up activities (some indicators over 70 %) exceeded those of health education (barely reaching 5 %) and information about drugs for patients and health professionals (never over 13 %); however, they are not either standardized or permanent. Additionally, the pharmaceutical interventions were well-accepted by the health teams (over 70 % acceptance rate) but they are still insufficient to deal with the number of problems connected with the detected medications. Conclusions: the implementation of the pharmaceutical care is not a regular and standardized practice by the pharmaceutical professional in the studied institutions. The aforementioned points to the need of drawing up strategies to improve this professional endeavor.

Introducción: el panorama de los países de América Latina en la actualidad revela que a nivel hospitalario hay una adopción del concepto de atención farmacéutica, sin embargo, la práctica demuestra que se mantiene el centro de la actividad en el medicamento y su dispensación. El uso de indicadores fácilmente mensurables que permitan conocer las características de las funciones relacionadas con este ejercicio, puede constituirse en una forma de constatar esta realidad. Objetivo: caracterizar la práctica de la atención farmacéutica en instituciones hospitalarias. Métodos: se realizó una investigación retrospectiva que incluyó los años 2005-2007, en instituciones hospitalarias de Santiago de Cuba. Se establecieron indicadores a partir de los criterios normados para la actividad de atención farmacéutica en el Manual de normas y procedimientos de farmacias hospitalarias y criterios establecidos en la literatura internacional. Se partió de los registros informados de dicha actividad a la Dirección Provincial de Salud. Resultados: los indicadores reflejaron que se realizan más las actividades de seguimiento farmacoterapéutico (algunos indicadores relacionados superiores al 70 %), que las de educación sanitaria (no alcanza nunca más del 5 %) e información sobre medicamentos a pacientes y profesionales (no alcanza nunca más del 13 %); pero no se desarrollan de forma normalizada, ni continua. Además, las intervenciones farmacéuticas son bien aceptadas por los equipos de salud (más del 70 % de aceptación), sin embrago, no son suficientes en función del número de problemas relacionados con los medicamentos detectados. Conclusiones: el ejercicio de la atención farmacéutica no es una práctica habitual del profesional farmacéutico en las instituciones estudiadas y no se desarrolla de forma normalizada; esto indica la necesidad de establecer estrategias para el perfeccionamiento de este ejercicio profesional.

Introduction: the clinical functions and the practice of pharmaceutical care at hospital setting are limited in Cuba. Although there is an approach to the conception of these functions in the current manuals of procedures, the pharmacists mostly carry out administrative and managing functions in addition to those of drug supply. Objective: to analyze the social contradictions (causes) that have an effect on the practice of pharmaceutical care at hospital, particularly in Santiago de Cuba, in order to draw up strategies for improvement of this activity. Methods: a tool facilitating the analysis of problems and their solutions, the cause-effect diagram and the weighed voting consensus method were applied to determine the main and secondary causes that hinder the above-mentioned practice at hospital. The main analyzed causes were human resources, methods, management styles, material resources, working means and conditions. Results: the results of the weighed voting revealed that the highly weighed causes in descending order were managing methods and styles with 37 points, the human resources with 33 points and the material resources with 18.5 points. Conclusions: the identified contradictions mark paths of research to solving the stated problems, which will allow creating a model of principles for the development of pharmaceutical care at hospital setting, on the basis of evaluations and assessments carried out and on the principles of the Good Practice of Pharmacy.

Introducción: en Cuba el ejercicio de las funciones clínicas y la práctica de la Atención Farmacéutica a nivel hospitalario son limitadas pues, aunque existe un acercamiento a la concepción de estas funciones en los actuales manuales de procedimientos, los profesionales farmacéuticos realizan mayormente funciones administrativas y de dirección, además de las relacionadas con el suministro de medicamentos. Objetivo: analizar las contradicciones sociales (causas) que repercuten en la práctica de la Atención Farmacéutica Hospitalaria, específicamente en Santiago de Cuba, para trazar líneas estratégicas que permitan el perfeccionamiento de esta actividad. Métodos: se aplicó una herramienta que facilita el análisis de problemas y sus soluciones, el diagrama de causa-efecto, así como el método de consenso de votación ponderada, para determinar las causas principales y secundarias que frenan dicho ejercicio a nivel hospitalario. Las principales causas analizadas fueron los recursos humanos, los métodos y estilos de dirección, los recursos materiales, los medios y las condiciones de trabajo. Resultados: los resultados de la votación ponderada mostraron que las causas de mayor ponderación en orden descendente fueron las relacionadas con los métodos y estilos de dirección con 37 puntos, los recursos humanos con 33 puntos y los recursos materiales con 18,5 puntos. Conclusiones: las contradicciones identificadas marcan caminos de investigación para resolver las problemáticas planteadas, lo que permitirá desarrollar un modelo que establezca principios para el desarrollo de la Atención Farmacéutica a nivel hospitalario diseñado sobre la base de las evaluaciones y las valoraciones realizadas y los principios de las Buenas Prácticas de Farmacia.

Taking into account the need of a curriculum assuring universal, contextual and flexible university formation that is committed to the social and professional realities of the country, the present paper designed the professional profile of the Pharmaceutical Sciences graduate in the University of Oriente, Cuba. To this end, the Professional Performance Model was used; the professional problem, the object of the profession and the professional objectives were defined. On the basis of the articulation of these configurations, the various fields, spheres and modes of performance were established, thus clearly stating the educational and learning objectives that are expected to be attained.

Teniendo en cuenta la necesidad de un currículo que garantice una formación universitaria universal, contextual, flexible y comprometida con la realidad social y profesional, en el presente trabajo se diseñó el perfil profesional que caracterizará al egresado de la Licenciatura en Ciencias Farmacéuticas de la Universidad de Oriente, Cuba. Se utilizó para ello el Modelo de Actuación Profesional; se precisó el problema profesional, el objeto de la profesión y el objetivo profesional, y sobre la base del sentido articulador entre estas configuraciones se definieron los campos, esferas y modos de actuación, dejando explícito, además, los objetivos educativos e instructivos que se aspiran alcanzar.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a racionalidade das prescrições como também os erros mais comuns nas prescrições emitidas pelo Centro de Saúde de uma Universidade no México. Foi realizado um estudo retrospectivo de utilização de medicamentos que requeria prescrição médica. 370 expedientes médicos foram aleatoriamente selecionados e revisados, obtendo uma mostra estatísticamente representativa do total de consultas médicas realizadas no período de um ano. A validade da prescrição médica foi feita utilizando as seguintes variáveis: indicação, doses recomendada, via de administração, contra-indicações, interações, duplicação de medicamentos, medicamentos desnecessários ou faltantes. As prescrições médicas foram classificadas como: apropriada (se não foram encontrados erros nas prescrições) ou inapropriada (se foram encontradas ao menos um erro na prescrição). A razão risco-beneficio foi calculada para cada prescrição médica. O estudo revelou alta incidência de prescrições inapropriadas no Centro de Saúde da Universidade do México (58%), causada pelos erros nas doses recomendadas e na seleção do medicamento relacionado com a necessidade do paciente. Como resultado da análise chi2 , foi encontrado que as variáveis fármaco-terapêuticas escolhidas neste estudo para avaliar a prescrição médica, foram determinantes para classificar as prescrições como apropriadas. Nimesulide, ciprofloxacin, ranitidine, ketorolac e paracetamol representaram o maior número de medicamentos prescritos assim como a maior causa de erros encontradas nas prescrições. É importante que um farmacêutico valide os medicamentos prescritos no Centro de Saúde. Este estudo justifica o papel que os farmacêuticos mexicanos deveriam desempenhar para evitar erros na prescrição, como parte importante da equipe médica, assim como a urgência de implementar os cuidados farmacêuticos em todos os estabelecimentos dos Centros de Saúde no México.

The purpose of this study was to assess prescription rationality and most common prescription errors at the primary care clinic of a Mexican university.A retrospective drug utilization review of indication-prescription type was carried out. A random sample of 370 medical records of patients assisted over a year period, were reviewed. Prescription appropriateness was evaluated according to the variables: indication, dosage regimen, administration route, contraindications, interactions, medication duplicity, unnecessary or missing medications. Prescriptions were rated as appropriate (no prescription errors found) or inappropriate (at least one prescription error found). The benefit-risk ratio was calculated for each prescription. This study revealed a 58% of inappropriate prescriptions in the Mexican primary care university clinic, mostly due to errors on dosage regimen and innapropiate drug selection. As a result of chi2 analysis, it was found that the pharmacotherapeutic variables chosen for the prescription assessment in this study, were determinant in prescription appropriateness rating. Nimesulide, ciprofloxacin, ranitidine, ketorolac and paracetamol were the most prescribed drugs as well as the most common cause of errors found. The prescription error rate revealed by this study addresses the need for strategies to improve prescription's quality. Introducing pharmacists as a key part of health care team is a mean proposed to prevent medication errors and to solve the urgency of pharmaceutical care implementation in all primary care facilities in Mexico.